The Ultimate Solution for Hardest Gre Essay Topics You Can Find Out About Today

The Ultimate Solution for Hardest Gre Essay Topics You Can Find Out About Today The first element of the essay we'll analyze is the way that it succeeds in identifying and examining the sections of the argument that relate to the job. Some people think that scientific discoveries have given us a far better mastery of the world around us. Don't attempt to compare the religions as a whole with no particular criteria. Therefore, before test day I'd earn a list of numerous important historical figures, events, documents, and so on, and have these examples in my personal arsenal. Most Noticeable Hardest Gre Essay Topics A paper is always simpler to write if you're interested in this issue, and you're going to be more motivated to do in-depth research and compose a paper that truly covers the whole subject. Attempting to compose a research paper on a topic that doesn't have a lot of research on it's incredibly hard, so before you choose a topic, do a little preliminary searching and make certain you are going to have all the info you must compose your paper. Not all research paper topics are made equal, and you would like to be certain you decide on a wonderful topic before you commence writing. Even if a specific research paper topic is getting a great deal of buzz at this time or other individuals seem interested in writing about it, don't feel tempted to make it your topic if you don't genuinely have some kind of interest in it also. At this time you've got to be in a position to understand the differences between both topics you'll be presented with. Therefore, if you practice with merely a few prompts per category, you ought to be ready. The topics would be associated with the normal troubles. There are many sites and publications that provide GRE-like reading. The writing of your essay is a little hard job to do, as, to begin with, you will need to pick out an acceptable topic. Before you commence writing a single word of your paper, you first will need to understand what your thesis will be. One of the absolute most important features about a compelling essay is its capacity to convince the reader by way of sound logical reasoning. There are a few commonalities across each of the essay prompts on the GRE Argument pool page, even past the simple fact which each task asks you to take a look at some sort of argument and analyze it. You've got not to forget that the focus of this second essay is to under stand in case you have learned how to critique a report. In the issue essay, you will be supplied a topic that's debatable. Take the time to proofread your essay, when you finish writing it. Discover steps you may take now to increase your AWA essay. The essay graders know that you simply get 30 minutes to compose each AWA essay and in addition, they know that you won't have the ability to cover every potential argument, reason and rebuttal. More creative tips on how to receive your essay graded here. The 2nd essay would be about the argument analysis. Since you may see, the longer the essay, the greater the grades. There are quite a lot of sites that can help you in evaluating your essays and also in supplying you with useful GRE sample essays. The gre essay is broken into different sections, and the main section appears to be the analytical writing assessment portion which is composed of two essays. As a result, if you would like to know the GRE sample essays clearly, you have to first go through these links which will provide you with a fair idea of the way to prepare for this test section, what the test section contains and what all to bear in mind whilst writing the essays. To begin with, utilize the perfect-scoring sample GRE essays within this guide as models of feasible approaches to achieve the essay tasks. Don't worry you don't will need to use the complete selection of vocabulary you'll discover throughout the GRE Verbal section. Vocabulary flashcards One good plan is to begin the day with GRE. Welcome to structure it includes the gre. Figure out the proportion of questions in every one of the four primary GRE math types. Make the weaknesses of the majority of test takers your strengths and you will up your probability of making a top score. Test takers all over the world believe they can easily master AWA in a day or two. You will get your essay scores approximately 10-15 days following your test date. Should you do, you've started failing the test already. Opt for a prompt at random from above, or pick a topic that you believe will be hard that you detach from (because you are going to want to write about this issue, as opposed to the argument) set timer to 50 minutes and compose the essay. Be sure to spell out the way the answers to the questions would help to value the conclusion. Be sure to spell out the way the answers to these questions would help to value the advice. Write a response in which you discuss what questions would want to get answered to be able to determine whether the recommendation will probably have the predicted outcome.

The Etiology of Addiction Disease Model Essay examples

Addiction is like all behaviours â€Å"the business of the brain†. Addictions are compulsive physical and psychological needs from habit-forming sustenances like nicotine, alcohol, and drugs. Being occupied with or involved in such activities, leads a person who uses them again and again to become tolerant and dependent eventually experiencing withdrawal. (Molintas, 2006). Addictive drugs cause dopamine neurons to release dopamine, the pleasure hormone. The narcotics disable the neurons that would usually keep the dopamine neurons in check; becoming over stimulated. Endorphins are produced and released within the brain, creating a high and reinforcing the individual’s positive associations with the activity. Hence â€Å"the rush† (Molintas, 2006)†¦show more content†¦(David Capuzzi, 2008, p. 20) Those people who over consumed were regarded as weak-willed or sinful but were not felt to be a threat to society. Records indicate that people sought help for drinking problems in Egypt approximately 5000 years ago. Even though there has been substantial research, many questions remain regarding addiction (David Capuzzi, 2008, p. 20). Historically in the later part of the 18th century, the teachings and writings of Benjamin Rush actually precipitated the birth of the American disease concept of alcoholism as an addiction (David Capuzzi, 2008, p. 10). Benjamin Rush; a physician, originally from Philadelphia began to write about inebriety (UnKnown, 2011). He referred to this condition as a disease of the will, resulting in loss of control, and that over-drinking behaviour is curable but only through abstinence (David Capuzzi, 2008, p. 10) (UnKnown, 2011). The rationale for this view was that no rational person would deliberately engage in a behaviour that was both anti-social and harmful to them. Hence they must be consuming substances against their will, which is unlike normal people. They had no control over their consumption so they had to have a â€Å"disease† (UnKnown, 2011). In 1960 E.M. Jellinek a scientist, was credited for introducing this controversial and initially popular model of addiction from past research of the late 1930`s and early 1940`s. His findings have received wide acceptance however, the research from which heShow MoreRelatedMontoyaW Conceptualizingaddictionpaper1080 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿ Conceptualizing Addiction Paper Montoya Williams BSHS/455 November 4, 2014 Carla Malewicz Conceptualizing Addiction Paper Introduction For many years, individuals have battled substance abuse and addiction. My position comes from hearing about it, having seeing results from it, and reading about it, also developing my own thoughts about addiction. 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Examining the various gaps in knowledge and also the limitations in research is necessary when making conclusions about ACoA patients seeking treatment. Considering different models of recovery may be helpful for counselors and treatment centers to provideRead MoreThe Brain‚Äà ´s Rewarding System Addiction1536 Words   |  7 PagesThe Brain’s Rewarding System Addiction Biopsychology Abstract The purpose of this paper is to examine the article, â€Å"The Brain’s Rewarding System Addiction† (2004) by Katharine P. Bailey, MSN. In this article, I did not find a general hypothesis. Studies in this article show that most drugs directly or indirectly cause selective elevation of dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens (NA), the ventral tegmental area (VTA), and the limbic system, consequently called theRead MoreExploring Comorbid Substance Use And Mental Illness1366 Words   |  6 Pagesthan the consequences of the four most common types of cancer and all other infectious diseases. The primary motivation for substance abuse is to cope with psychological distress or negative emotions stemming from living with a mental disorder. Ratnasingham et al. (2013) suggested that the difference between living with comorbid mental illness and substance abuse in terms of quality of life from other diseases such as cancer is the primary source of burden. Individuals with comorbidity typicallyRead MoreAddiction and Requiem for a Dream2022 Words   |  9 PagesRequiem for a Dream depicts four individuals and their addictions to cocaine, heroin, and diet pills. Set in Brooklyn, New York, the characters each have their own dreams and addictions and their drugs are easily attainable trapping them in a cycle of dependence. The central character, Harry Goldfarb, is a young man who lives in virtual poverty because every cent he earns or steals goes toward his next high. He dreams of making a big enough score selling dope that will lead him to becoming financiallyRead MoreSymptoms And Treatment Of Bipolar Disorder983 Words   |  4 Pagestermed â€Å"mania and melancholia† as two diverse states of one and the same disea se was the Greek physician of the 1st century AD, Aretaeus of Cappadocia. â€Å"It appears to me that melancholy is the commencement and a part of mania†. (Alexander 2014). Early diagnosis and treatment of BPD, through the usage of combined treatments including: medications and cognitive therapy, can help the individual lead a productive life. The precise etiology of BPD has yet to be determined. Scientific data suggests it’s caused

Clear Thoughts Essay Research Paper Clear thoughts free essay sample

Clear Thoughts Essay, Research Paper Clear ideas As I reflect upon my experience in the Iranian Gulf War I can remember the contending all excessively clear. The clip was 2110 hours on 16 January 1991. The land war had been underway for five yearss and I was mentally exhausted. My platoon had been assigned the responsibility of uncluttering sand traps. During the last part of our briefing we were given expressed instructions to guarantee that we all made it back alive. We were besides instructed to take captives if we could, if non, make what you were trained to make, ? kill? . Those orders will ever remind me of the ground I am alive today. Within proceedingss of having our order we were headed to what was traveling to be a turning point in my life, front line combat. After walking about an hr a member of my squad detected motion about one 100 metres straight in front. We will write a custom essay sample on Clear Thoughts Essay Research Paper Clear thoughts or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page I halted my squad, grabbed the wireless from Pvt. Tucker and warned the balance of my platoon. I whispered into the French telephone, ? Rock six, Rock six, this is, stone two Charlie, we have positive contact? . Without vacillation, the commanding officer ordered us to prosecute. Sparing no vacillation on my portion, I directed two members of my squad to wait at the right side of the sand trap, the other three work forces were to follow me. We dropped into the prone place onto the cold, wet, Saudi Arabian sand and began to crawl toward the left side of the sand trap. While creeping, I realized that we could be killed within seconds ; it was my occupation as squad leader to see that wouldn? t happen. Was it fear, exhilaration, or possibly a mere oversight in concentration? I wasn? T certain if I could, or even had the clip to weigh the feelings I was holding. I halted my work forces, regained my focal point and re-clarify the importance of our mission. Upon completion of our concluding program of onslaught we continued to creep toward our aim. As we approached the sand trap, I realized that it was non merely a sand trap, but a trench line as good. I crawled back and radioed the commanding officer of my findings. He began to reiterate his last order, ? Rock two Charlie, prosecute your aim? , when a new order was given. That order was to direct one adult male inside to look into. At that really minute, my universe stood still. I had to do a determination. Which one of my warrior brothers was traveling to be the luckless adult male? The determination was simple, I? ll send myself. Without advising the commanding officer, I slid into the trench as silen T as I could perchance be. Once inside the trench, I looked to my right and so to my left. No 1 was at that place, at least non in the trench. I began to travel toward the sand trap when an Iraqi soldier, like a shade looking out of a fog, stepped out of the sand trap. I knew that our orders were to take captives? , but the determination was his ; would he decease today, or would he give up? With one expression at the American flag sewn on the left arm of my uniform, he laid down his rifle. I motioned for him to walk towards me and to ascent out of the trench. With his custodies above his caput he proceeded up the side of the trench, merely to be detained by my work forces. My mission wasn? T over yet ; I still had to unclutter the sand trap and study the balance of the trench. I began to travel toward the sand trap at a slow and steady gait. As I approached the entryway of the sand trap, I noticed a soldier illuming a coffin nail. Taking full advantage of the visible radiation provided by the lucifer, I could do out three figures standing in the darkness, there were no arms in sight. Without hold I said a short supplication and committed to the undertaking at manus. I ran indoors shouting some words that I understood to be their native linguistic communication. But the work forces merely stood there looking at me with cryings in their eyes. In incredulity I shoved one of the work forces against the wall of the sand trap. The other work forces ran up to the wall and stood following to their friend. Their resignation was in analogue to the 100s that had surrendered the dark before. While inside the sand trap, I visually inventoried the contents. I was surprised to happen 24 big wooden boxes incorporating adequate explosive stuff to level two metropolis blocks. After my brief review of the sand trap I thought to myself about the hapless status of our alleged enemy and how eager they were to put down their weaponries and resignation. Subsequently that dark, I sat and pondered the eventide? s concatenation of events. I recalled the brief oversight in concentration that had saved our lives. If I would hold ordered the devastation of the sand trap, or had I chosen another adult male to come in the trench, the full platoon could hold been vaporized by 12 dozenss of explosives stored indoors. I am so thankful to hold remembered the advise of my gramps. Gramps ever said, ? Son, take your clip with the hard undertakings because when you rush you act with hastiness, so slow down and believe things through? . This clip his advice truly paid off!

The Lottery by Shirley Jackson Essay Example For Students

The Lottery by Shirley Jackson Essay Critical essay The Lottery by Shirley Jackson In The Lottery, Shirley Jackson uses symbolism to make us aware of the pointless nature of humanity regarding tradition and violence. The story starts off on a beautiful summer day in a small town. The author describes the day as very euphoric but strikes a contrast between the atmosphere of the town and the atmosphere of the people gathered in the square. The atmosphere is subdued, where the children are gathered around quietly. The black box is the central theme or idea in the story. It symbolizes at first some type of mystery, but as we read the ending we realize that it is synonymous with doom. Someones fate lies in an inanimate object, the black box. We do not always enjoy change, even if it might prove beneficial to us. The box is symbolic of our loathing of change; it is old and splintered showing that we cling to what is familiar rather than change and it also symbolizes the traditions of the community. No one in the little town questions the origin of the black box, but accept it as an intrical part of their lives. There is always discussion of people getting a new box, but no one ever really goes through with it. Everuy year, after the lottery, Mr.Summers began talking again about a new box, but every year the subject was allowed to fade off without anythings being done. We will write a custom essay on The Lottery by Shirley Jackson specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The lottery itself is symbolic of the paradox of the human psyche between compassion on one hand and the thirst for violence and cruelty on the other. An example of this is when the children are enjoying a break from school, playing and being children, and suddenly they are being joined by rational adults in stoning a mother to death. It appears that tradition has blinded these people in an irrational way, making them unable to think of a reason why this possibly should not be happening. When forced with the possibility of death, human nature in all its complexity, comes down to one instinctive urge, that of survival. When Tessie was in no danger she was gossiping with the other ladies and even encouraged her husband to go and pick a piece of paper. When Tessie wins the lottery; she pleads for another chance and screams for mercy. She demands that her daughters take their chances as well, which is indicative of regression toward our basic instinct of survival. The pieces of paper that are lifted away by the breeze is not only symbolic of the ease with which life can be taken but is also symbolic of vast civilizations that were doomed to eventual failure for believing in and acting on tradition and not living according to the word of God. We see that even as Tessie is being stoned to death does she not question the reasoning behind the lottery, but why it should be her that has to die. The story also has some symbolic relevance to when it was written in 1948. This was a time where a lot of countries were rebuilding there nations due to the destruction they undertook in World War II. These nations were restructuring how they handled world problems, and how they ran there own countries. There was a lot of change after the war; people were not the same because so many had been affected by it. I think that this story tries to capture some of that. One example in the book was, There had been , also, a ritual salute, which the official of the lottery had had to use in addressing each person who came up to draw from the box, but this also had changed with time, until now it was felt necessary only for the official to speak to each person approaching. I feel that this shows that she interpreted the story to what was going on in the world around her, and how the world was changing so much. Traditions that people used to feel very strong about were starting to be broken down by the change in time, and world around them. .ud36c439042756e898cb3105d8f91d8b3 , .ud36c439042756e898cb3105d8f91d8b3 .postImageUrl , .ud36c439042756e898cb3105d8f91d8b3 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ud36c439042756e898cb3105d8f91d8b3 , .ud36c439042756e898cb3105d8f91d8b3:hover , .ud36c439042756e898cb3105d8f91d8b3:visited , .ud36c439042756e898cb3105d8f91d8b3:active { border:0!important; } .ud36c439042756e898cb3105d8f91d8b3 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ud36c439042756e898cb3105d8f91d8b3 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ud36c439042756e898cb3105d8f91d8b3:active , .ud36c439042756e898cb3105d8f91d8b3:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ud36c439042756e898cb3105d8f91d8b3 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ud36c439042756e898cb3105d8f91d8b3 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ud36c439042756e898cb3105d8f91d8b3 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ud36c439042756e898cb3105d8f91d8b3 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ud36c439042756e898cb3105d8f91d8b3:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ud36c439042756e898cb3105d8f91d8b3 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ud36c439042756e898cb3105d8f91d8b3 .ud36c439042756e898cb3105d8f91d8b3-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ud36c439042756e898cb3105d8f91d8b3:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Guilt, Duty, And Unrequited Love EssayAs much as The Lottery symbolizes tradition the driving force through out the story is sacrifice. The author of the, The Lottery used foreshadowing and an astounding plot to present a tale about a melancholy sacrifice. Sacrifice plays a large role in the acute community. It instills a form of obedience and loyalty towards the morbid tradition. Although tradition changes over time ; the villagers over all concept of sacrifice is never lost. Jackson the author of The Lottery uses sacrifice to build an extremely original plot. Jackson wrote the story as if it were a favorable lottery to through off the readers consistency and twist the plot. Through out the story the author leaves helpful hints to make the theme apparent. For example when Jackson wrote Bobby Martin had already stuffed his pockets full of rock and the other boys started to follow his example, and eventually made a great pile of stones in the corner of the square. This sign of foreshadowing shows what method of sacrifice is to be used within the short story. The town had no other choice than to mastermind the lottery. In The Lottery Old Man Warner said Listen to those young folk, nothings good enough for them. Next thing you know, theyll be wanting to go back to living in caves, nobody work any more, live like that for a while. This quotes intent was to show how much harder it was for the community to strive while living in caves. Also while living in caves the public civilization at the time was in ruin. They had come up with the idea to use a theory brought upon by other communities around them. Their approach to the theory was to eliminate one individual annually ;so that their crops would come in. They chose this method of sacrifice in order to yield themselves from the responsibility and burden of murder. Even though the towns lottery has lost all traditional value the sacrificing has held steadfast. As it says in The Lottery although the villagers had forgotten the ritual and lost the original black box, they still remember to use the rocks. This quote means that even though their tradition has gone off course they will always hold to their beliefs about sacrifice. To summarize they held true to their beliefs because of apprehension. So tradition has subconsciously made the community unaware of their horrible actions. The citizens of the village are not afraid of change. They are afraid of what change will bring. The present community has never known a year without the lottery or depleted crops. They fear if they if they disband from the traditional sacrifice their crops will fail. Also their warm safe homes will fade away and the dampened caves that have become so fictional to them will appear to be realistic problems. The Lottery by Shirley Jackson Essay Example For Students The Lottery by Shirley Jackson Essay â€Å"The Lottery† is a short story by Shirley Jackson that was published in 1948 and gave a good example of the definition of the term sociological theory. This theory is a set of ideas on how people behave and how institutions operate. The analysis of this short story and the of the work of Emile Durkheim shows the relationship of the two in the field of Sociology. There are many well defined intertwining theories that Durkheim gave to society that are also included in â€Å"The Lottery†. Solidarity is the theory that will be analyzed. One of the first theories that Durkheim used relates to â€Å"The Lottery† is typology of societies based on solidarity. He stated that the type and level of solidarity is determined by the organization of the society. The division of labor is included in the organization of societies. This definition of Durkheim’s theory is used in The Lottery. First, the lottery rules of participation reflect a rigid social hierarchy based upon an inequitable social division of labor. We will write a custom essay on The Lottery by Shirley Jackson specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Also, the villagers believe unconsciously that their commitment to a work ethic will grant them some magical immunity from the selection of the black box. This work ethic prevents them from understanding that the lottery’s actual function is not to encourage work bur to reinforce an inequitable social division of labor. This town is considered a mechanical society, in that of they all had a high degree of regulation and the thoughts and actions of individuals within the society. The town has a small society, consisting of only 300 people. Between the post office and the bank is where the lottery is held, which shows simple organization. Also the leader of the town was a coal miner, not too many high organizations. The traditions of the lottery show the shared values and beliefs. The lottery and its consequences show the simple, repressive laws and harsh punishment. However, â€Å"the conscience theory†, or shared mental facts of a group, is the basis of social bonds that is also related. This is related because the fact is the town all agreed on the lottery and its outcome. It is a tradition and a set way for the people in the lottery. The attitudes might change when their name is called, but the fact is that the lottery is a shared belief that their society has. In a mechanical society the punishments are harsh and swift, like on Mrs. Hutchinson. Also, the purpose of the punishment is revenge. The punishment on Mrs. Hutchinson was the stoning of her and her family. This was revenge by the society for not working the way up in the social ladder and making your name not enter the black box. Stoning is the method of punishment used by the society in the lottery. This is a fast and effective way if punishment. Toleration is not required in mechanical societies because of the agreement among members. The ideas of Emile Durkheim on solidarity and mechanical society show the relevance and relationship to the short story â€Å"The Lottery†. The society of the lottery is the exact fit to the definition of the mechanical theory of society. This type of society has been a part of the past and is rarely seen.

Financing Value Chains a Case of Crdb Bank Plc Essays

Financing Value Chains a Case of Crdb Bank Plc Essays Financing Value Chains a Case of Crdb Bank Plc Essay Financing Value Chains a Case of Crdb Bank Plc Essay Essay Topic: Chains â€Å"DEVELOPING AND FINANCING EFFECTIVE AGRICULTURAL VALUE CHAINS† Experience from CRDB Bank Plc Samson Keenja, CRDB Microfinance Services Company Limited, Dar es salaam, Tanzania INTRODUCTION Agriculture is the leading economic sector in Tanzania, providing a livelihood to 80% of the population. It is the primary source of food and raw materials accounting for 50% of the GDP and a leading export sector. It remains important for achieving sustained growth, poverty reduction and rural development. Agriculture in Tanzania is dominated by smallholder farmers (peasants) cultivating an average farm sizes of between 0. 9 hectares and 3. 0 hectares each. About 70 percent of Tanzania’s crop area is cultivated by hand hoe, 20 percent by ox plough and 10 percent by tractor. It is rain fed agriculture. Food crop production dominates the agriculture economy 5. 1 million ha. are cultivated annually, of which 85 percent is under food crops. The major constraints facing the Agriculture sector includes. 1. The falling labour and land productivity due to application of poor technology. 2. Dependence on unreliable and irregular weather conditions. Crops are adversely affected by periodical droughts. 3. Unreliable markets for the farm produce, affected not only by the principles of demand and supply but also by the Government policies on food security. 4. Poor road infrastructure for supply of farm inputs and transportation of farm produce to the markets. In Tanzania, most of production, processing and marketing functions have been assigned to the private sector. : However despite efforts by the private sector in investing in processing of crops yet a substantial amount of crops are sold unprocessed including crops such as cashew nuts and cotton. Agricultural value chains are becoming more complex over time due to change in the market environment driven by various factors among them being changes in demand, regulations, government policies and changes in lifestyles. As a result of these changes then product and market standards change which in turn, require changes from various actors in the chain that supply these products including their inputs to meet arket requirements. A critical input in the business of creating value in these changing agricultural chains is finance. Financial products need to also respond to the changing market requirements in the output markets. Mechanisms in terms of improving effectiveness of financial products, access and repayment need to be examined (Southeast Asian Regional Conference Value Chain Financing, 2007). What is a value chain? In order for a product to reach the consumer or user, there often are many processes or steps involved. Each step must have a direct link to the next in order for the processes to form a viable chain. At each stage, some additional transformation or enhancement is made to the product. Hence, a value chain is often defined as the sequence of value-adding activities, from production to consumption, through processing and commercialization. Value chains, or supply chains, in agriculture can be thought of as a â€Å"farm to fork† set of processes and flows – from the inputs to production to processing, marketing and the consumer. Each segment of a chain has one or more backward and forward linkages. A chain is only as strong as its weakest link and hence the stronger the links, the more secure is the flow of products and services within the chain (Calvin Miller and Carlos da Silva, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome) Value chain in summary: [pic] Source: Paper on â€Å"Value Chain Financing in Agriculture† by Calvin Miller and Carlos da Silva FINANCING EFFECTIVE AGRICULTURAL VALUE CHAINS Finance is critical to increasing efficiency, improving product quality, and raising the productivity and income of value chain actors. Without access to finance, small farmers will continue to make little investment, have low of actors in the agricultural value chains financed by CRDB Bank; 1. INPUTS PRODUCTION: AMCOS, FARMER GROUPS, SACCOS, UNIONS and small to medium agribusiness entities. . PROCESSING: CURING COMPANIES, GINNERY COMPANIES and CASHEWNUTS PROCESSORS. 3. DISTRIBUTION: Loans to meet (1) transportation cost of inputs to farmers (2) meeting transport costs of harvested produces to factories, storage areas or market place. DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE AGRICULTURAL VALUE CHAINS CRDB Bank has been participating in developing effective agricultural value chains through variety of ways. In an effort to offer better services to our clients, special departments and in other case establishment of a dedicated Company to serve certain type of clients has been established. Our agriculture customers who fall in the value chain are normally segmented in the following categories (1) Microfinance customers (2) SME’s customers and (3) Corporate customers. In all three segments above, efforts are made by the bank into ensuring that there is effective agricultural value chain that address default risks while in turn reduce production unit cost, increase production volume while strives to add value in the chain. Activities that are aimed into attaining this are: ? Engage in promotion and establishment of various farmer cooperative societies such as AMCOS, SACCOS and UNIONS. Provision of technical assistance to these associations ? Assist in product designing ? Infrastructures loans such as for building irrigation system, warehouses and office buildings. ? Training and coaching our customers plus their staffs SAVINGS AND CREDIT COOPERATIVE SOCIETIES (SACCOS) are exclusively served by the CRDB Microfinance services Company Ltd, a subsidiary of CRDB Bank P lc that has been established specifically to serve micro-entrepreneurs through financial intermediaries. To develop the MFI the Company undertakes sensitization of the communities to establish microfinance institutions in areas with demand for financial services but without a financial institution. On the other hand, it takes onboard weak local microfinance institutions, building their capacities to offer tailor made products and services that really address the needs of their communities. The Microfinance Institutions, benefits by receiving free: 1. Technical assistance 2. Capacity building 3. Marketing as well as 4. Product design assistance. On the other, hand the Company initiate and manage microfinance loans on behalf of the Bank. These loans include agriculture loans (for farm inputs and cultivation), equipment loans for powertillers, tractors and irrigation systems, stock finance loans and office building loans. The Company has a team of dedicated staffs who are responsible for providing technical assistance to the affiliate intermediary institutions on regular basis, capacity building assistance and marketing assistance. They are also responsible for guiding the MFIs in accessing banks products and services. Farmer’s Groups, AMCOS, UNIONS, Company’s and Individuals engaged in agricultural activities are served by two departments of the Bank depending on their size  and credit requirement. Those departments are the Small and Medium Enterprises (SME) and Corporate Department. Customers served by SME are those with loan requirement of up to TZS 200 million. Customers with loan requirement above that amount are served through the Corporate Department of the bank. It has been realized through experience that capacity building before lending especially to those taking loans for the first time is vital for effective utilization and management of the loans. Therefore, training is conducted to the beneficiaries to improve their entrepreneurial skills but also in business management to ensure loan repayment. . CRDB FINANCING TO DIFFERENT ACTORS [pic] EXAMPLES OF PRODUCT AND SERVICES OFFERED BY CRDB BANK TO ACTORS IN DIFFERENT VALUE CHAINS Examples of products and services offered by CRDB Bank Plc to various agricultural value chains: A) PADDY VALUE CHAIN S/N |VALUE CHAIN STAGE |PRODUCTS/ SERVICES OFFERED | |1 |Crop production |Farm development loans | | | |Farm maintenance loans | | | |Powertiller/tractor loans | |2 |Storage |Stock finance loans | |3 |Processing |Loans to millers | |4 |Distribution |Loans to cover transportation costs | | | |Crops purchase loans | | | |Loans to buy transportation vehicles | B) COFFEE VALUE CHAIN: S/N |VALUE CHAIN STAGE |PRODUCTS/ SERVICES OFFERED | |1 |Crop production |Farm development loans | | | |Farm maintenance loans | |2 |Processing |Loans to curing companies | |3 |Distribution |Loans to cover transportation costs | | | |Crops purchase loans | | | |Loans to buy transportation vehicles | | | |Loans to cover export costs (CIF costs to the buying | | | |country) | | | |Crops purchase | C) SUGARCANES VALUE CHAIN: S/N |VALUE CHAIN STAGE |PRODUCTS/ SERVICES OFFERED | |1 |Crop production |Farm development loans | | | |Farm maintenance loans | |2 |Harvesting |Loans to purchase harvesting equipments e. g cane loaders | | | |Loans to buy transportation vehicles to ship canes from | | | |farms to factories | |3 |Processing |Loans to sugar factories | |4 |Distribution |Loans under SME to distributors who sells sugar to retailers| D) TOBACCO VALUE CHAIN: S/N |VALUE CHAIN STAGE |PRODUCTS/ SERVICES OFFERED | |1 |Crop production |Inputs purchase loans | |2 |Harvesting |Burns constructions loans | |3 | Processing |Loans to tobacco factories | [pic] SOME NOTED CASES ON IMPACT OF FINANCING THE VALUE CHAINS Sugarcane Financing Bank has been financing sugarcane production in various stages of the value chain from production to delivery at factory. One example is that of financing farmers at Turiani ward in Morogoro region through their TUR SACCOS by providing them with loans for farm development, maintenance and transportation to factory. The result of financing in the past seven years has been remarkable as shown in the table below. It will be noted that between 2007 and 2008 there was a rapid increase in all aspects of production, this was contributed by the decision by the Company to finance farmers (through their group) to purchase grab loaders equipment to facilitate harvesting of sugarcane. As in the previous years, not all sugarcanes from outgrowers farmers were being harvested to due lack of equipment despite higher demand from factory. This was causing farmers to lose their crops and those who harvested late after start of the rain season obtained lower renderment and thus lower returns. |SUGARCANE PRODUCTION TREND AS A RESULT OF SACCOS FINANCING TO OUTGROWERS- TUR SACCOS | |   |   |2002 |2003 | |1 |Price during Harvest (100kgs) |35,000 |100 | |2 |Price at selling time after storage(100kgs) |70,000 | | |5 |Production per acre before WRS (tons) |1. 6 |100 | |6 |Production per acre after WRS (tons) |3 | | SECTOR WISE DISTRIBUTION OF CRDB BANK PLC LOAN PORTFOLIO Agriculture and Livestock constitute the largest portion of the CRDB Bank Loan portfolio with 21%, however by considering financing of the value chain then three sectors will be involved of microfinance, manufacturing/processing and agriculture with a percentage of about 34%. CONCLUSION Through financing the agriculture value chain by considering the different actors from small farmers to corporate agribusinesses it is possible to overcome the challenges o f agriculture in a country. This can only be possible through innovative approaches to serve the different segments by considering their differences in their activities, finance requirements, understanding of farming business and management of loans. It has also been proved beyond doubt that access to finance to the different actors has helped in reducing production unit cost, increase production volume while adding value in the chain. Corporate PHYSICAL FLOWS SME Corporate CRDB Microfinance Corporate CRDB BANK PLC STORAGE AMCOS. GINNERY COMPANIES AND CASHEWNUT PROCESSORS DISTRIBUTION TRANSPORTERS PROCESSING CURING COMPANIES GINNERY COMPANIES AND CASHEWNUT PROCESSORS INPUTS PRODUCTION AMCOS, FARMERS GROUPS, UNIONS, SACCOS, Agribusiness entities CRDB Microfinance SME

Symptoms of the Black Death

Symptoms of the Black Death The Black Death is a plague which killed millions of people. In one particularly destructive explosion, over a third of the whole European population might have died in a few years in the mid 14th century, a process which changed history, birthing, among other things, the start of the modern age and the Renaissance. For a history of the Black Death in Europe, see our page here. This is an explanation of what happens when someone contracts it. You really have to hope you never do! How you get the Black Death Despite plenty of people trying to claim other things, the evidence comfortably points to The Black Death being Bubonic Plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia Pestis . A human being usually receives this by being bitten by a flea which has ingested the disease from the blood of a house rat. The infected flea has had its system blocked by the disease, and remains hungry, regurgitating older infected blood into a human before drinking new blood, spreading infection. The rat’s flea doesn’t usually target humans, but seeks them out as new hosts once their colony of rats die off from the plague; other animals could also be affected. Plague carrying fleas didn’t have to come straight from a rat, as the fleas could survive for several weeks in bundles of cloth and other items humans conveniently came into contact with. On rarer occasions, a human could receive the disease from infected droplets which had been sneezed or coughed out into the air from a sufferer of a va riation called Pneumonic Plague. Even rarer still was infection from a cut or sore. Symptoms Once bitten, a victim experienced symptoms like headaches, chills, high temperatures and extreme tiredness. They might have nausea and pain throughout their body. Within several days the bacteria had begun affecting the body’s lymph nodes, and these swelled up into painful large lumps called ‘buboes’ (from which the disease takes its popular name: Bubonic Plague). Usually those nodes closest to the initial bite were first, which normally meant in the groin, but those under the arms and in the neck were also affected. They could reach the size of an egg. Suffering great pain, you could then die, roughly a week after you were first bitten. From the lymph nodes the plague could spread and internal bleeding would begin. The sufferer would expel blood in their waste, and black spots could appear all over the body. Sufferers with the spots almost invariably died, and this is noted in the chronicles of the day. The disease could spread to the lungs, giving the victim Pneumonic Plague, or into the bloodstream, giving Septicaemic Plague, which killed you before the buboes appeared. Some people did recover from the Black Death – Benedictow gives a figure of 20% - but contrary to the beliefs of some survivors they did not gain an automatic immunity. Medieval Reaction Medieval doctors identified numerous symptoms of the plague, many of which correlate with modern knowledge. The process of the illness through its stages wasn’t fully understood by medieval and early modern doctors, and some interpreted the buboes as signs the body was trying to vent foul liquids. They then attempted to relieve the illness by lancing the buboes. A punishment from God was seen at the frequent underlying course, although quite how and why God was inflicting this was heatedly discussed. The situation wasnt one of total scientific blindness, as Europe has always been blessed with proto-scientists, but it was confused and unable to react like modern science. Even so, you can still see this confusion exist today when it comes to popular understanding of illness.

Business formation and purpose Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Business formation and purpose - Lab Report Example All these four airline services were integrated on 31st March 1974 to form British Airways. BA continued its operations for almost 13 years as a state-owned company. In February 1987, the BA was privatised as part of the Conservative government’s wider privatisation plan. Soon after its privatisation in 1987, the company acquired British Caledonian in the same year, Dan-Air in 1992, and British Midland International in 2012 so as to promote its global expansion. BA is a member of the Oneworld airline alliance along with other founding members like American Airlines, Qantas, Canadian Airlines, and Cathay Pacific. Today the Oneworld alliance has become the world’s third largest airline alliance after SkyTeam and Star Alliance. On 21st January 2011, BA merged with Iberia to form the International Airlines Group (IAG), which is the parent company of BA. IAG is the third largest airline group in the world and the second largest in Europe by annual revenues. It has been liste d on the London Stock Exchange and in the FTSE 100 Index. The BA operates under airline industry. While analysing the industrial classifications of the BA, it seems that the company maintains four major subsidiaries including BA CityFlyer, OpenSkies, British Airways Limited, and British Airways World Cargo. The BA CityFlyer, Didsbury based wholly owned subsidiary airline of BA, operates a number of European and domestic services from London City Airport. This BA subsidiary has gained a United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority Type A operating licence to carry passengers, cargo, and mail on aircrafts having 20 seats or above. In 2008, the BA CityFlyer signed a contract with Embraer to obtain the delivery of 11 E-Jet aircrafts for the purpose of modernising the fleet. In addition, the organisation ordered 3 extra Embraer 190 aircraft in late 2013. According to official data, the company carried roughly 1.2 million

Business Regulations and practices Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Business Regulations and practices - Essay Example The offeror, in this case Sullivan, may need to prove beyond any reasonable doubt that he was not in the right frame of mind when he made the offer. if he does, a court of law may render the contract invalid, otherwise it remains binding and Sullivan must sell his 40-acre tract of land to Ball for $60000 (Elliott et al 3). In contract laws, both making an offer by the offeror and acceptance or rejection of the offer by the offeree must be communicated to both parties. The offeree must receive the offer, and the offeror must receive a communication from the offeree notifying him/her or the acceptance or rejection of the offer. Chernek makes an offer to sell used farm equipment to Bollow for $10000. Bollow receives the offer, which is okay. Chernek dies before Bollow accepts the offer. Bollow accepts the offer after the offeror had died, but the Chernek is no longer living to be able to receive the acceptance. There is no valid contract in this case. Bollow must accept that there is no more Chernek to complete the contract by receiving his acceptance (Elliott et al 4). When the equipment were lost to an accidental fire disaster, and it is proven that the fire was indeed purely accidental, the contract becomes invalid because it even happened prior to Bollow sending her acceptance of the offer to Chernek. Since the equipment that would been the subject of a contract no longer exist, and they are burnt down before there is the acceptance bit of the deal, the contract is instantly rendered null and void even if Bollow sends the acceptance. Chernek died before the acceptance of the offer by Bollow. The general rule is that, if the offeror dies before the offeree accepts the contract, it remains terminated. It is evident acceptance was only communicated after Chernek’s death; hence the contract was terminated. What makes

Chinese philosophy Essay Example for Free

Chinese philosophy Essay Taiji (literally great pole) is a Chinese cosmological term for the Supreme Ultimate state of undifferentiated absolute and infinite potentiality, contrasted with the Wuji ( , Without Ultimate). The term Taiji and its other spelling Tai chi (using Wade-Giles as opposed to Pinyin) are most commonly used in the West to refer to Taijiquan (or Tai chi chuan, ), an internal martial art, Chinese meditation system and health practice. This article, however, refers only to the use of the term in Chinese philosophy and Daoist spirituality. Contents [hide] 1 The word 2 Taiji in Chinese texts 2. 1 Zhuangzi 2. 2 Huainanzi 2. 3 Yijing 2. 4 Taijitu shuo 3 Core concept 4 See also 5 References [edit]The word Chinese taiji is a compound of tai ? great; grand; supreme; extreme; very; too (a superlative variant of da ? big; large; great; very) and ji ? pole; roof ridge; highest/utmost point; extreme; earths pole; reach the end; attain; exhaust. In analogy with the figurative meanings of English pole, Chinese ji ? ridgepole can mean geographical pole; direction (e. g. , siji four corners of the earth; worlds end), magnetic pole (Beiji North Pole or yinji negative pole; anode), or celestial pole (baji farthest points of the universe; remotest place). Common English translations of the cosmological Taiji are the Supreme Ultimate (Le Blanc 1985, Zhang and Ryden 2002) or Great Ultimate (Chen 1989, Robinet 2008); but other versions are the Supreme Pole (Needham and Ronan 1978), Great Absolute, or Supreme Polarity (Adler 1999). [edit] Taiji in Chinese texts Taiji references are found in Chinese classic texts associated with many  schools of Chinese philosophy. Zhang and Ryden explain the ontological necessity of Taiji. Any philosophy that asserts two elements such as the yin-yang of Chinese philosophy will also look for a term to reconcile the two, to ensure that both belong to the same sphere of discourse. The term supreme ultimate performs this role in the philosophy of the Book of Changes. In the Song dynasty it became a metaphysical term on a par with the Way. (2002:179) [edit]Zhuangzi The Daoist classic Zhuangzi introduced the Taiji concept. One of the (ca.3rd century BCE) Inner Chapters contrasts Taiji great ultimate (tr. zenith) and Liuji six ultimates; six cardinal directions (tr. nadir). The Way has attributes and evidence, but it has no action and no form. It may be transmitted but cannot be received. It may be apprehended but cannot be seen. From the root, from the stock, before there was heaven or earth, for all eternity truly has it existed. It inspirits demons and gods, gives birth to heaven and earth. It lies above the zenith but is not high; it lies beneath the nadir but is not deep. It is prior to heaven and earth, but is not ancient; it is senior to high antiquity, but it is not old. (tr. Mair 1994:55) [edit]Huainanzi The (2nd century BCE) Huainanzi mentions Taiji in a context of a Daoist Zhenren true person; perfected person who perceives from a Supreme Ultimate that transcends categories like yin and yang. The fu-sui (burning mirror) gathers fire energy from the sun; the fang-chu (moon mirror) gathers dew from the moon. What are [contained] between Heaven and Earth, even an expert calculator cannot compute their number. Thus, though the hand can handle and examine extremely small things, it cannot lay hold of the brightness [of the sun and moon]. Were it within the grasp of ones hand (within ones power) to gather [things within] one category from the Supreme Ultimate (tai-chi ) above, one could immediately produce both fire and water. This is because Yin and Yang share a common chi and move each other. (tr. Le Blanc 1985:120-1) [edit]Yijing Taiji also appears in the Xici Appended Judgments commentary to the Yijing, a late section traditionally attributed to Confucius but more likely dating to about the 3rd century B.C. E. [1] Therefore there is in the Changes the Great Primal Beginning. This generates the two primary forces. The two primary forces generate the four images. The four images generate the eight trigrams. The eight trigrams determine good fortune and misfortune. Good fortune and misfortune create the great field of action. (tr. Wilhelm and Baynes 1967:318-9) This two-squared generative sequence includes Taiji, Liangyi Two Polarities; Yin and Yang, Sixiang Four Symbols (Chinese constellation), and Bagua Ba gua. Richard Wilhelm and Cary F. Baynes explain. The fundamental postulate is the great primal beginning of all that exists, tai chi – in its original meaning, the ridgepole. Later Indian philosophers devoted much thought to this idea of a primal beginning. A still earlier beginning, wu chi, was represented by the symbol of a circle. Under this conception, tai chi was represented by the circle divided into the light and the dark, yang and yin, . This symbol has also played a significant part in India and Europe. However, speculations of a Gnostic-dualistic character are foreign to the original thought of the I Ching; what it posits is simply the ridgepole, the line. With this line, which in itself represents oneness, duality comes into the world, for the line at the same time posits an above and a below, a right and left, front and back – in a word, the world of the opposites. (1967:lv) [edit]Taijitu shuo Zhous Taijitu diagram The Song Dynasty philosopher Zhou Dunyi (1017-1073 CE) wrote the Taijitu shuo Explanation of the Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate, which became the cornerstone of Neo-Confucianist cosmology. His brief text synthesized aspects of Chinese Buddhism and Daoism with metaphysical discussions in the Yijing. Zhous key terms Wuji and Taiji appear in the opening line , which Adler notes could also be translated The Supreme Polarity that is Non-Polar! . Non-polar (wuji) and yet Supreme Polarity (taiji)! The Supreme Polarity in activity generates yang; yet at the limit of activity it is still. In stillness it generates yin; yet at the limit of stillness it is also active. Activity and stillness alternate; each is the basis of the other. In distinguishing yin and yang, the Two Modes are thereby established. The alternation and combination of yang and yin generate water, fire, wood, metal, and earth. With these five [phases of] qi harmoniously arranged, the Four Seasons proceed through them. The Five Phases are simply yin and yang; yin and yang are simply the Supreme Polarity; the Supreme Polarity is fundamentally Non-polar. [Yet] in the generation of the Five Phases, each one has its nature. (tr. Adler 1999:673-4) Instead of usual Taiji translations Supreme Ultimate or Supreme Pole, Adler uses Supreme Polarity (see Robinet 1990) because Zhu Xi describes it as the alternating principle of yin and yang, and †¦ insists that taiji is not a thing (hence Supreme Pole will not do). Thus, for both Zhou and Zhu, taiji is the yin-yang principle of bipolarity, which is the most fundamental ordering principle, the cosmic first principle. Wuji as non-polar follows from this. [edit]Core concept Taiji is understood to be the highest conceivable principle, that from which existence flows. This is very similar to the Daoist idea reversal is the movement of the Dao. The supreme ultimate creates yang and yin: movement generates yang; when its activity reaches its limit, it becomes tranquil. Through tranquility the supreme ultimate generates yin. When tranquility has reached its limit, there is a return to movement. Movement and tranquility, in alternation, become each the source of the other. The distinction between the yin and yang is determined and the two forms (that is, the yin and yang) stand revealed. By the transformations of the yang and the union of the yin, the 5 elements (Qi) of water, fire, wood, metal and earth are produced. These 5 Qi become diffused, which creates harmony. Once there is harmony the 4 seasons can occur. Yin and yang produced all things, and these in their turn produce and reproduce, this makes these processes never ending. (Wu, 1986) Taiji underlies the practical Taijiquan (T’ai Chi Ch’uan) A Chinese internal martial art based on the principles of Yin and Yang and Taoist philosophy, and devoted to internal energetic and physical training. Taijiquan is represented by five family styles: Chen, Sun, Yang, Wu(Hao), and Wu (NQA {Meeting}).

The HIV & AIDS Virus :: HIV, AIDS, Health

Citations AIDS.org - news, treatment information, and other resources. www.aids.org/ HIV and AIDS Activities - information from the FDA Office of Special Health Issues. www.fda.gov/oashi/aids/hiv.html Specialized Information Services Home Page - US National Library ... - ... Library of Medicine (NLM) is responsible for information resources and services in toxicology, environmental health, chemistry, HIV/AIDS, and specialized ... www.sis.nlm.nih.gov CDC-NCHSTP-Divisions of HIV/AIDS Prevention (DHAP) Home Page - ... CDC - Divisions of HIV / AIDS Prevention Home Page; logo: HIV / AIDS Prevention National Center for HIV, STD and TB Prevention Divisions of HIV/AIDS Prevention. ... www.cdc.gov/hiv/dhap.htm AIDSinfo - federally approved information on AIDS research, clinical trials, and treatment from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Created by merging the AIDS Clinical Trials Information Service (ACTIS) and the HIV/AIDS Treatment Information Service (ATIS). www.hivatis.org/ HIV InSite - comprehensive and reliable information on HIV/AIDS treatment, policy, research, epidemiology, and prevention from the University of California, San Francisco. hivinsite.ucsf.edu/ HIV & AIDS Virus AIDS - acquired immunodeficiency syndrome - was first reported in the United States in 1981 and has since become a major worldwide epidemic. AIDS is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). By killing or damaging cells of the body's immune system, HIV progressively destroys the body's ability to fight infections and certain cancers. People diagnosed with AIDS may get life-threatening diseases called opportunistic infections, which are caused by microbes such as viruses or bacteria that usually do not make healthy people sick. More than 790,000 cases of AIDS have been reported in the United States since 1981, and as many as 900,000 Americans may be infected with HIV. This epidemic is growing more rapidly among minority populations and is a leading killer of African-American males ages 25 to 44. According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), AIDS affects nearly seven times more African Americans and three times more Hispanics than whites. Transmission of HIV Having unprotected sex with an infected partner most commonly spreads HIV. The virus can enter the body through the lining of the vagina, vulva, penis, or mouth during sex. HIV also is spread through contact with infected blood. Before donated blood was screened for evidence of HIV infection and before heat-treating techniques to destroy HIV in blood products were introduced. HIV was transmitted through transfusions having the contaminated blood or blood components. Today, because of blood screening and heat treatment, the risk of getting HIV from such transfusions is extremely small.

Food Technology Essay

Let’s remember 1The key stages of the technology process are designing, producing and evaluating. 2A design situation is a scenario, situation or context. It sets the scene for a designer. A design brief is a statement that presents a task or problem to be solved as it relates to the design situation. 3It is important to analyse the design brief to ensure that the designer understands what is required of them and so that they can develop a criteria for success. 4It is essential to know the criteria for success before undertaking a design process so that a designer can refer back to these criteria during the design process and ensure that they are on track and making correct decisions. It is essential to know the constraints before undertaking a design project so that a designer stays within the boundaries of the project, particularly in terms of cost and schedule. 5Some methods of research and investigation that designers use may include: inspiration boards, interviews, the Internet, surveys, experiments, observations, textbooks, encyclopaedias, magazines and TV programs. 6Primary sources of information are original documents. Some examples of primary sources are interview responses, survey responses, observations or original documents. Secondary sources of information are collected from existing documents and might include textbooks, magazines, TV programs and Internet searches. 7Designers sometimes produce simple sketches of their ideas to ensure that they remember all of the details that they generated during the research and exploration stages. Their diagrams might be accompanied by labels that list materials, colours, size and other details. 8Designers will usually come up with more than one option for the design solution to ensure that the most creative and innovative solution possible is found, rather than just the first and most obvious idea. 9The best design option is selected by evaluating each idea against the original brief, the criteria for success and any constraints. 10Evaluation is an important part of the technology process as it helps the designer to make decisions about the design and the development of the solution. Evaluation also helps the designer to judge the success of the final result. 11Food designers may evaluate their food product solutions by performing a sensory evaluation with a panel of taste-testers. 1. 2 Factors influencing design Case study: Red Lantern 1The two factors that Mark Jensen of Red Lantern considers important when judging the success of a restaurant are limiting the restaurant’s impact on the environment and using organic and ethically sound produce. 2Some of the produce chosen for the menu at Red Lantern includes organic vegetables and herbs, line-caught fish, organic and free-range poultry, free-range pork. 3According to Mark, some benefits of using organic and free-range products include that they are free from pesticides and taste better. 4Pesticides used in farming contaminate the soil and the water table and are therefore harmful to the environment. 5Net fishing is a problem for marine ecology because of the amount of bycatch. Bycatch is a term given to the tonnes of marine animals caught in nets and killed every year. The bycatch is then discarded into the ocean because they are perceived to have no economic value. 6Energy use is being reduced at Red Lantern by using sustainable technologies such as energy-efficient equipment and light globes. Water consumption is reduced by replacing common wok stations that rely on a constant flow of water with a new type of wok system which stops water from being lost down the drain. 7Waste is managed at Red Lantern by using specially marked glass, plastic, cardboard and paper recycling bins. Vegetable waste is placed in compost bins. Let’s remember. 1The factors that may influence the development and production of a solution to a brief include: function, aesthetics, human form, scale, ergonomics, ethics, environmental issues, legislation, cost, sociocultural sensitivity, resource availability, physical and material properties and safety. 2Ergonomics relates to the human form. An ergonomic solution must be comfortable and safe to use without causing strain or injury to the user. 3The word sustainable means renewable or maintainable. A sustainable resource can be maintained at a certain level without causing damage to the environment. 4Organic foods are grown without the use of chemical fertilisers or pesticides. 1. 3 Innovation and emerging technologies Case study: Molecular gastronomy 1Molecular gastronomy is a term used to describe the application of science and technology to cooking. 2Some methods used to change ingredients into new foods are: drying, liquefying, gassing and freezing. 3Chefs of molecular gastronomy are successful in creating new food combinations and textures by first understanding the chemistry of food and flavour. 4Answers will vary. Let’s remember 1Some advantages of having an Internet refrigerator are: keeping track of what is stored in it, recording how long food has been in the fridge, having a built in video camera to leave video memos, being able to watch television or listen to online music while cooking. 2Reasons for putting a computer in a refrigerator may include: the kitchen is the source of action in many homes and is therefore a logical place for a computer; the refrigerator is always plugged in and switched on so it makes sense to include a computer. 3Nanotechnology is a new or emerging technology that refers to substances at the atomic and molecular level (that is, very, very small things). 4Nanotechnology will make the following possible: aIncrease the nutritional claims of particular foods by fortifying foods with hidden nutrients and vitamins. bIncrease the shelf-life of food by creating an invisible, edible, nano-wrapper that will cover foods, preventing gas and moisture exchange. cReduce allergic reactions in individuals by blocking the ingredient that causes the allergy. dReduce diet related diseases by programming smart packaging to release extra nutrients to people with deficiencies. eReduce food spoilage by allowing the development of special ‘smart packaging’ that releases nano-anti-microbes when it detects food spoilage. 1. 4 Design this! Case study: Urban Graze Cooking School 1Tarrah Laidman and Joel Owen started Urban Graze cooking school in August 2006. 2Students experience a range of high-quality food experiences in a fun and relaxed environment during an Urban Graze cooking lesson. Students are taught with a hands-on approach and work towards making dishes for the end-of-class group meal, which is eaten together at the dining table. 3Ingredients are selected for a class by considering what is in season and what is available. Local produce is used where possible and Tarrah and Joel try to include new food trends in their ingredient selection. 4At Urban Graze, each class begins with a brief occupational health and safety talk and an orientation of the equipment and facilities. A description of the class is given with an overview of each recipe. Demonstrations are given to the whole class as well as individual attention. At the completion of the class, food is shared around the dining table. 5Tarrah and Joel try to always use locally sourced ingredients and equipment. They grow some of their own vegetables and herbs. Case study: Veronica Cuskelly – recipe designer 1Veronica Cuskelly had had many roles: home economist, food consultant, recipe developer and cookbook author. 2The team creating a recipe may include a client, recipe developer, nutritionist, food stylist and photographer. 3A team approach refers to working together and sharing ideas. It requires clear and positive communication. It is important so that the recipe developer has a good understanding of the various elements of the brief. 4The essential elements included in a brief to create a new recipe may include: target market, specific produce to be used, maximum or minimum number of ingredients, steps or utensils to be used, preparation time allowed, cooking times, cost per serve, style in which the recipe is to be written and dietary requirements. 5The reason for establishing clear and positive communication between the client and the recipe developer is to ensure that all essential information is given and any difficulties or problems that may arise can be resolved easily. 6At the beginning of a project, the type of pre-work that Veronica undertakes may include research and information gathering, tasting food samples, looking at other similar recipes, speaking with a nutritionist and looking at current dietary guidelines. 7Recipe progress is checked and evaluated in different ways: submitting concepts to the client for approval; developing the approved recipe; testing three times; taste-testing sessions; modification as necessary and writing up the final, approved recipe. 8The essential components of a recipe that need to be tested and recorded are as follows: ingredients, quantities, steps or methods used, temperatures, equipment, timings. Let’s remember 1The three key areas of study in the Technology course are: built environments, products, information and communications. 2Ideas for a design project come from real-life situations. 3The steps for solving a design project are: a. Design (design situation, design brief, analysis, research, ideas) b. Produce c. Evaluate 4The success of a design project is decided by evaluating it against the design brief and the criteria for success. 5Ways of gathering information to help solve a brief may include: conducting surveys, interviewing relevant people, reading books, magazines or articles on the Internet, conducting focus groups or taste-tests.

Physiology

You recorded the data in Chart 1 on page 35. E the data to produce a Graph that will clearly show how the effects Ion the resting membrane potential when the KEF concentration of Is high and when the KEF concentration of An+ is low. Hint: take in consideration that independent variable is not a numeric but a category. (4 points) The following questions will require you to do some Web search. 2. Loading Is a commonly used anesthetic. What is the molecular composition of Loading. (type of macromolecule and formula) (2 points). 3. List three specific usages of loading (1 points each = 3 points) 1. 3. 4.Provide the name of two vendors of loading and four (4) brand names for this anesthetic (1 points each) Vendors Brand Names 1 OFF 5. Explain the precise mechanism behind Loading effect on action potential in nerves. Indicate to what type of integral proteins Loading binds to, the effect on such proteins and what will be the effect on the generation of an action potential and on the transm ission of the action potential. (4 points) 6. Loading is commonly administrated topically to anesthetize the nerve endings in the dermis that are activated by noxious stimulus resulting in the nerve conduction f impulses that are perceived as â€Å"pain†.Draw a figure of the transverse section of the Shinto show the layers of the epidermis and structures of the dermis (do not forget to include the nerve endings). Use the Diagram to indicate all the layers of cells the Loading has to go through to reach the nerve endings. (Figures copied and pasted form the internet will not be accepted, you have to draw your own version of a figure) (5 points). 7. What cell membrane transport do you suspect moves Loading from the surface of the epidermis all the way down the nerve endings. (1 point)

Mayhem and Maiming

Mayhem and Maiming Mayhem and Maiming Mayhem and Maiming By Maeve Maddox A series of insurance ads personifies insurable disaster as a man who causes various kinds of property damage. The ads always end with the character saying, â€Å"be protected from mayhem like me,† spreading the idea that mayhem means, â€Å"damage.† Mayhem shares its origin with the verb maim, which originally meant â€Å"to wound or cause bodily hurt or disfigurement.† In current usage, maim means â€Å"to mutilate† or â€Å"to cripple.† Twin Blasts Kill 3 and Leave Scores Maimed, Wounded Children maimed, tortured in Syria, says damning UN report A new generation of maimed veterans is coming home with critical needs that overwhelm existing care facilities and devastate their families. As a term in criminal law, mayhem retains the meaning of inflicting physical injury on a person. Mayhem is a crime in which tremendous violence is done onto the victim.   [] to prove the defendant guilty of mayhem, the prosecution needs to prove that the defendant had malicious intent to maim or disfigure, cuts or maims an ear, nose, lip or cuts off or disable limb of another person. (site of a Boston attorney) In ordinary speech, mayhem is used to refer to any kind of violent behavior or disorder. A surfers’ event in Huntington Beach, Calif., ended in mayhem late Sunday, as riot police were called to the streets to disperse violent crowds and break up numerous fights. Akm Antivirus 2010 Pro is a virus that is causing mass mayhem around the internet by infecting thousands of PCs. Current mayhem in the financial sector opens up an opportunity for Nigeria to rid itself of the political and economic cancer it has endured for decades. U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry said that Yanukovych must decide between protecting the people that he serves all of the people versus violence and mayhem. The word maim always denotes a crippling injury. Apart from legal use, mayhem may refer either to physical injury or to violent behavior that does not necessarily lead to injury. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Passed vs Past5 Lessons for Mixing Past and Present TenseCapitalizing Titles of People and Groups

Hyphenating Prefixes

Hyphenating Prefixes Hyphenating Prefixes Hyphenating Prefixes By Maeve Maddox A reader who works with legal transcription has the following question: There seems to be a trend towards having the prefixes and suffixes separate from the modified noun instead of being attached or hyphenated.  What is proper?   Some examples are non negotiable, post surgery, post doctorate, age wise. The examples given present a variety of forms, not all of which represent a prefix+noun combination. The prefix non- is added to nouns of action, condition, or quality with the sense of â€Å"absence, lack of,† or simply â€Å"not.† for example, non-Catholic. Non- is affixed to adjectives to make them negative. Whether to add a hyphen depends upon whether American or British usage is being observed. The OED hyphenates many words that M-W shows written as one word. For example, M-W gives nonnegotiable, but OED has non-negotiable. When it comes to another word in the reader’s list, however, both the OED and M-W agree with postdoctorate, although both prefer postdoctoral. The prefix post- means, â€Å"after† or â€Å"behind.† It is added to adjectives without a hyphen: postcolonial, postsurgical. Post can be used on its own as a preposition meaning, â€Å"after†: â€Å"Your mouth will be extremely dry post surgery.† In this context post is a separate word. Added to a noun to create a descriptor, however, post would require a hyphen: â€Å"Post-surgery care is vitally important.† The suffix -wise means, â€Å"in the manner of† or â€Å"as regards,† as in clockwise, lengthwise, foodwise, etc. This combining form is never separated from the word it’s added to, either by a hyphen or by a space. It can have other meanings, of course. For example, a person is said to be â€Å"penny wise, but pound foolish.† In this context wise is a word that means â€Å"possessing wisdom†; it is not a suffix. Hyphenation is not an exact science. Authorities differ regarding the necessity of a hyphen, but I’m reasonably sure that all agree that suffixes aren’t free agents that can stand apart from the words they belong to. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:75 Contronyms (Words with Contradictory Meanings)How to Punctuate Descriptions of Colors10 Tips for Clean, Clear Writing

A Specific Dimension of English Usage by a Subculture Essay

A Specific Dimension of English Usage by a Subculture - Essay Example For example, if someone has developed a code that is questionable, some hackers may call for a ‘sanity check.’ A sanity check is the â€Å"act of checking a piece of code...for completely stupid mistakes.†1 This implies that at the time of writing the code the hacker was not in his or her right mind. As another example shows, when hackers talk about how something is ‘fab,’ they very rarely mean that something is fabulous. Rather, they are saying that something is fabricated. For example, someone who ‘fabs’ a chip is creating a silicon foundry. These are just small examples of how hacker slang is used within the continuum of the community. Of course, there are pages and pages worth of slang that one could use, so hacker slang would have to be learned over time. However, it could be done. These illustrations of hacker slang show just how particular the hacker community can be when describing various elements of their lives as code designers and code breakers. III. Analyzing Hacker Slang There are several reasons why hackers use slang. Every word that is said is intentional, even if hackers use emoticons in their conversations online. If one analyzes hacker slang, one will realize that every little symbol and word can carry double and even triple entendres, with multiple shades of meaning behind every keystroke. This is the fascinating world of hacker slang. People in the hacker community use this slang intentionally so that outsiders cannot understand it. Just like getting into any community or group to be accepted, one has to ease into the culture of a particular group. For example, a homeless man doing a presentation for venture capitalists on Wall Street wouldn’t walk into a boardroom, full of executives wearing rags, with a cardboard sign saying â€Å"Will work for food.† Rather, he’ll find the wherewithal to buy or rent a nice suit, prepare a resume and then go pitch his idea for the presenta tion. In order to ‘fit in,’ one must look and act the part. IV. Explaining the Usefulness of Hacker Slang The usefulness of hacker slang is a rite of passage within the hacker community. People build code together, work on open source software and freeware together; they become a small, close-knit community—but online. â€Å"The special slang vocabulary of hackers helps hold their culture together—it helps hackers recognize each others’ positions within the community and expresses shared values and communities. However, as with most slang cultures, not knowing the slang or using it inappropriately defines one as an outsider.†2 So, not only does hacker slang keep the people who are not in the hacker community at the fringes but it can as well help hackers know who is in the community that they don’t know—much like any other secret language would do. ‘White hat’ hackers — or ethical hackers — are, probab ly, more important for companies and are useful to prevent Distributed Denial of Service attacks on organizations with complicated systems which are in source code. ‘White hat’ hackers, as they are known, is a slang for the fact that these people find vulnerabilities in companies’ codes on purpose in order to save them millions of dollars so that they don’t get hacked by ‘black hat hackers’ (unethical hackers). â€Å"‘

Islamic Politics and Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Islamic Politics and Culture - Essay Example In fact Islamic dictatorship is prevailing in majority of the Arab countries. However, the recent revolutions in Libya and Egypt have forced many of the Arabs to think about a democratic political system in their country. However, the fundamentalists in those countries are against this idea. The concept of political Islam has been evolved out under the above context. According to Mohammed Ayoob, â€Å"Political Islam is a product of modernity as much as a response to it†(Rajesekhar). However, westerners are watching the dawn of Political Islam suspiciously. â€Å"In April 2014 Tony Blair urged the West to set aside its differences with Russia and China to focus on the growing threat from radical Islam† (Veerman). Westerners believe that Political Islamic movements are trying to destroy modernization and civilizations in the name of religion. This paper analyses the impact of the encounter between Western expansionism and Muslim-majority societies on the rise of politica l Islam. A crucial factor generating tensions in the West is the presence of ‘Islamism’ or ‘political Islam’, in all of its different manifestations, within Muslim communities. Islamism can be defined as "forms of political theory and practice that have as their goal the establishment of an Islamic political order in the sense of a state whose governmental principles, institutions and legal system derive directly from the shari’ah" (Veerman). The interference of religion in politics is unacceptable to westerners. They believe that religion should be separated from politics in order to create a stable and advanced society in a country. They have many examples to prove their arguments. For example, in countries such as Afghanistan and Saudi Arabia, women get less freedom and power in politics and social life. Westerners believe that the over involvement of religion in politics is the major reason behind these problems. They try to empower

World Views on theism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

World Views on theism - Essay Example Just as Hackett recounts, the absence of the divine Being immediately creates the limitations of cultural relativism. This is because, the notion that a divine Being exists and created the universe and the fullness thereof immediately gives room for moral absolutes or the universal law. Since a personal example suffices, living in America made me note that as globalization continues to render the US and the entire world a cultural melting pot because of multiculturalism, the danger of cultural relativism has certainly become inescapable. This danger has mainly manifested itself in a clash between legislative pieces and cultural values. For instance, because of the constant but radical shifting away from theism, the US government with all its constitutional maturity still remains ambivalent and unsure about the publication of literature such as Phillip R. Greaves II’s The Pedophile’s Guide to Love and Pleasure, despite the risks it poses to children. Only theism can here by strike this delicate balance between freedom of speech and conscience and that of children’s safety.... The crux of the mater herein is that when stimuli are introduced, there must be a response, as a corresponding action. Personally, I readily identify with behaviorism because I have come to note that results or consequences shape individual or collective action. Action in turn develops into behavior. Particularly, I have come to note that most of my colleagues did not take their assignments seriously until lecturers set deadlines. Reflecting on my past life also reinforce my belief in behaviorism, since we worked hard in high school, mainly upon knowing that entry into college or university learning would be based only on merit. Learning Styles Personally, kinesthetic approaches to learning have proven the best and most fruitful. This is because, this approach proves to be the most practical since it involves learning by performing, and therefore incorporates hands-on approaches such as movements, observing and other physical activities. Alongside note-taking and ensuring physical co mfort, joining study groups, using appropriate technology such as visual aids and reviewing information have catalyzed learning. The foregoing has especially been the case during encounters with cognitive sciences such as linguistics. Particularly, it has been virtually impossible to master phonetics, the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA chart), the phonological processes and supra-segmental features thereof, without looking at the mirror to watch the movement of articulators, or feeling the movements of my articulators, or both. In courses pertaining to political science, history and sociology, I have found it most benefiting to my memory when I place the world map before me, as a reference material. Likewise, as one given over to kinesthetic approach, I have found

Medical Uses Of Infrared Photography Cultural Studies Essay

Medical Uses Of Infrared Photography Cultural Studies Essay Tattoos have been an invaluable method for the identification of non skeletonised remains. The design and/or location of the tattoo can be substantially exclusive to provide adequate identification, and especially when combined with other distinguishing features they can definitively identify and individual. During an autopsy the pathologist will take note of tattoos just as they would any other distinguishing marks, such as birth marks, defects or scars. In cases such as mass disasters, it can sometimes be one of only few methods available for the initial examination of the remains. In 2001, Kingsholm et al studied several unidentified bodies and remains found in Danish waters, some of which had tattoos. Discovery and detailing of any tattoos can also aid in tracing unidentified bodies back to their cultural backgrounds, thus in some cases tattoos have important historical aspects. Tattoos can also indicate a history of incarceration (Mallon et al 1999) and in such cases the individual sporting this unique design may not wish to be easily identified. Repeat offenders for example, may choose to remove or alter their defining features and members of gangs or organised crime groups may wish to no longer be associated with that particular faction. Some tattoos may serve to connect one individual with another, such as love tattoos, which can also aid in identification of the individual sporting the design. Different light sources and filter techniques have been used routinely in criminal investigations; the following uses of infrared (IR) photography presented in this introduction are all relevant to this study as they go some length towards explaining the nature of infrared and therefore what might be expected, allowing for deduction of a hypothesis which is presented later in this report. Infrared describes the part of the spectrum just beyond the visible red wavelengths (700 1200 nm) There are many used of infrared photography spanning many different fields. For art photography purposes, Infrared can be used to photograph objects in the distance, or in foggy conditions due to the infrareds ability to penetrate the haze (Milsom 2001). For portrait photography, infrared is sometimes favoured to give the appearance of a clear complexion Infrareds (IR) ability to penetrate the superficial layers of the epidermis of skin is exploited in medical photography as a method of photographing venous patterns underneath the skin and of documenting healing under lesions in the skin. They found that imaging in the near-infrared range provided relatively good contrast of subcutaneous veins. This works due to the fact that haemoglobin is a chromophore that absorbs near infrared, and the skin absorbs very little IR relative to the absorption of infrared demonstrated by the veins (Haxthausen, 1933), or transmits or reflects most of the near infrared spectrum, therefore it appears lighter by contrast to the darkened veins. Zharov et al (2004) identified the potential of this technique as a diagnostic method for varicose veins at a depth of 1-3mm into the skin. The use of infrared photography for the detection of varicose veins or any other subcutaneous abnormalities is demonstrated by Marshall (1981). This research uses infrared reflectance (as well as ultraviolet) to measure the densities across pigmented lesions of the skin and found it to be a useful method. The study by Haxthausen (1933) found that for documenting superficial afflictions, such as psoriasis, ordinary photography was far superior to infrared photography, as under the infrared conditions, the imperfections were removed. Afflictions that occurred in the deeper layers of the skin were captured best using infrared photography. In cases of burn injury is can be difficult to assess the damage or the thermal burn depth. Anselmo et al (1976) found that infrared photography could be used as a valuable and non invasive method of assess burn depth. Their experiment used Wratten 89A infrared filter Infrared photography allowed for the differentiation between viable and necrotic dermis. Infrared photography of bloodstains and Gunshot residue Forensic applications of infrared photography include detecting gunshot residue on clothing (Bailey et al 2007) and less commonly, for detecting bloodstains on dark clothing or at crime scenes. A report by Raymond and Hall in 1986 illustrated a dark coloured sofa, showcased in the report as a black and white photograph for the visual spectrum comparison. In this photograph there is no obvious bloodstain, it cannot be distinguished from the rest of the sofa due to the dark colour of the sofa. The infrared photograph was taken using the Wratten #88a filter. In this photograph the sofa had lightened and now by comparison, the area of bloodstained sofa (now darkened by contrast) could easily be distinguished. When using infrared photography to detect and document traces of blood on dark clothing, the infrared will make the blood appear darker and the surrounding clothing appear lighter by contrast. This is all due to the absorbing capabilities of the clothing and of the blood. Blood absorbs throughout the visible spectrum and the near infrared spectrum (typically absorbing most wavelengths of near infrared 700-900nm) and so its appearance in infrared records will be darkened, in contrast the clothing might only absorb through the visible light range of the spectrum, and so in the infrared records will appear lighter, or transparent. Dark clothing can hinder the successful visualisation of blood spatter patterns in much the same way that darkened mummified skin can hinder the detection of tattoos, or that charring on a fire damaged document can affect the successful visualisation of the writing. A study by Perkins (2005) used digital infrared photography, Wratten #89B filter to photograph blood spatter on several different materials. The dark clothing appeared to reflect the infrared, thus enhancing the contrast between the clothing and the blood patterns. Bailey et al (2007) used digital infrared photography to better visualise gunshot residue on dark clothing. It is very similar in both methodology and results to the use of this technique in bloodstain analysis. The camera ISO was set at 200 and the filter used was the Wratten #87. The GSR, undetected under visible light conditions, appeared dark against a lightened cloth under IR. The use of infrared in analysis of obliterated writings and questioned documents Infrared photography also has many applications in the field of forensic science. It is a common method for detecting obliterated writing (Creer 1976) for detecting forged, or altered documents, such as cheques and to aid in the examination of writing obscured by charring on fire damaged documents (Bartha. 1973) McCaul et al (2007) discuss the problems facing forensic scientists when traditional photography techniques fall short at documenting certain evidence. In the examination of documents, IR can be used to detect forgeries or alterations, relying on the fact that the visually similar inks may reflect or absorb infrared at varying levels and wavelengths. Parallels can be drawn between the uses of infrared for examining obliterated writing and this study into examining original tattoos from underneath cover tattoos. The use of correction fluid or other inks to cover writing serves to render the underlying text illegible, in the same way that the cover tattoo serves to distort, hide or completely cover the original underlying tattoo. If infrared photography can allow for the underlying writing to be visualised, than it is entirely possible that underlying original tattoo could be recovered. The successful recovery of obliterated writings is dependent on the different inks used and their infrared absorbing capabilities. Some ink, when irradiated with infrared, will absorb it. This is due to the presence of different Chromophores in the different inks (Ellen, 2006) A chromophore is the chemical group of a molecule that is responsible for the molecules colour, and they absorb, reflect and transmit different wavelengths. Other examples include chlorophyll, melanin and amethyst. Infrared photography can also be used to examine/restore writing on charred documents (Bartha 1973). The success of the visualisation is dependent on the degree of charring. The charred paper is darkened due to partly converted resinous material before being completely degraded to elementary carbon. The carbon in the pen ink absorbs the infrared and so appears dark under IR, by contrast the charred paper looks lighter. The Video Spectral Comparator (VSC) is often used in the examination of obliterated writing (G M Mokrzycki 1999). The VSC uses Infrared radiant energy and filters to see through inks and other obliterations, and reveal obscured objects. The use of infrared photography is not an uncommon method for visualising and recording obliterated writing, S. Sugawara (2004) discusses the use of both near and middle infrared in deciphering obliterated writings by looking at writing made by 101 different pens. Erasures describe inks that have been made invisible by removal of the colour components of the inks. Sometimes when these components are removed, remnants are left behind. Sometimes whatever remains on, or just below, the surface can be detected using infrared. This is the same principle encountered in a paper by McKechnie et al (2008) in which infrared was used to detect remnants of ink left behind in the skin post-laser removal treatment. The findings of this research will be analysed in greater detail later on in this research paper. Other uses of infrared photography The uses of Infrared photography do not begin and end at medical and forensic uses however, for example, Bridgeman and Gibson (1963) used infrared to examine paintings. A paper by J R J Van Aperen De Boer (1969) successfully applies Infrared Reflectography to view the under-drawings of carbon pencil, with varying degrees of success of medieval paintings. Pencil lead (which is primarily graphite) absorbs throughout the infrared range of the spectrum, and the visible range. Because of this, under both near and far infrared conditions the graphite will remain as readily viewable as to the naked eye. Thus far this project has looked at both medical and forensic uses of infrared photography, many of which have in common the idea that infrared can be used to recover, or detect traces of one material (for example; ink) from underneath another material (such as correction fluid). These underlying or otherwise camouflaged materials are not readily viewable with the naked eye, or easily recorded using ordinary photographic methods. This is the same principle as is to be employed in this research. The detection of latent residue tattoo ink pigments The use of infrared photography to record tattoos is by no means a recent phenomenon. As long ago as 1938 JÃ ¶rg used infrared photography to detect tattoos that were otherwise undetectable with the naked eye. Although infrared photography has been utilized to study tattoos, there is not a great deal of literature available on the topic. Below some specific examples are given. The following are 2 examples found provide useful validation of infrared penetrating capabilities coupled with its specific use for detecting tattoo designs that have been affected by environmental conditions, or purposefully made difficult to visualise: Mckechnie et al use infrared photography to attempt to visualise latent tattoo ink residue from laser removed tattoos. This research article only used 2 participants, and with a success rate of 50% and so a follow up experiment would be required using a larger sample size to validate the findings. Both participants had their tattoos removed by laser treatment to the extent that they were no longer visible to the naked human eye. One of the participants tattoos was professionally done; the other was an amateur tattoo. Although the authors explain the difference between amateur and professional tattoos as a possible factor (that is that professional tattoos use more ink and are injected deeper into the dermis than amateur tattoos) and cross reference it with infrareds ability to penetrate the skin, they do not expand on the colour or pigment as being factors resulting in the success or failure of the trial. Visualising tattoos on mummified remains using infrared photography One of the original journal articles of interest that could be said to have initiated the thought behind this project idea, or at the very least inspire a belief of the success of the project, uses infrared Reflectography to examine tattoos on mummified remains, the mummified tissue normally being darkened to the extent that visualisation under normal photography conditions is near impossible (Alvrus et al 2001) It showcases the usefulness of infrared for lightening certain aspects of a subject in order to see others. In this case, the darkened mummified tissue made it difficult to visualise the tattoo under normal photographic conditions (visible light). Under Infrared conditions however, the contrast between the tattoo and the surrounding skin was enhanced; the darkened mummified skin appeared lighter, and by contrast the tattoo (which appeared darker) was readily visible. This is due to the differing absorption/reflection of infrared. The substances in the tattoo absorb the majori ty of the infrared; the surrounding skin reflects the infrared. A similar technique is used in the identification of tattooing on a 1600 year old mummified body found in Alaska (Smith and Zimmerman 1975) Tattooing was identified on the hands and forearms of the Eskimo female remains using infrared photography. The darkened skin obscured the tattoos to the extent that they could not be viewed under visible light spectral range photography. Skin thickness as a factor One of the other variables accounted for in this project is the area on the body of that tattoo, the thought behind this being that the thickness of the skin might come into play. According to E J Wood (1985) the thickness of the epidermis ranges from 0.06 0.1mm (from eyelids, to back and callused areas, respectively). The dermis ranges from 2 4mm thick, and accounts for the bulk of the skin. Although any differences in skin depth tend to be minute, they may still account for variable success rates due to the migrating nature of tattoo ink through the dermis and the penetrating capabilities of infrared. A skilled tattooist will not allow the needle to penetrate the skin no deeper than 2mm, the reasons for which are discussed below in The tattoo process. The ink must be deposited deeper than the epidermis, or else the ink will fade as the outer layers of the skin shed, therefore the thickness of the epidermis will affect how deep the ink must be deposited. It is also assumed that th e thickness of the dermis will correlate with the thickness of the epidermis. This is why this research paper has chosen to look at the area on the body of the tattoo as a possible factor. The tattoo process The process of tattooing involves injecting pigment, suspended in a carrier, through the epidermis and into the dermis of the skin, no more than 2mm or else the tattooist risk the ink bleeding, creating a smudged effect, regardless of the tattoo technique employed (the settings of the modern tattoo machine do not allow for the needle to penetrate any deeper than 2mm). There is no exact science as to the pressure exerted on the needle by the individual tattooist, as it is a matter of personal judgement (direct quotation from Mark tattooist from Dannys tattoo Studio in Sneinton, Nottingham) depending on the area of the body on which the tattoo is being performed. Tattooing on an individuals back or upper arm will require greater pressure because the skin is much thicker, the setting of the tattoo machine will also have to be altered for deeper penetration through the epidermis and into the dermis. Once injected into the upper layer of the dermis, the pigment is suspended in the fibroblasts (Sperry 1991). When looking at a tattoo, the tattoo is being viewed through the epidermis. Over time the deposited tattoo ink will disperse deeper into the dermis, and so it is possible that time, both between original and cover, and time since cover, could be a feature in the investigation. Tattoo Ink pigments More often than not, the tattooist will use a tattoo ink containing pigments which will be manufactured outside of the tattooists own premises, the exact content and purity of which is in most cases, unknown. There are certain guidelines in place for manufacturers of tattoo inks to abide by when producing the inks, however manufacturers of tattoo ink are not forced by law to disclose the ingredients used in the inks. A study by Timko et al (2001) found that, of 30 inks studied, the most commonly identified elements were aluminium, oxygen, titanium and carbon at 87, 73, and 67 percent respectively. Professional tattoo artists have access to over 100 different colours (Kirby et al 2005), many of these are mixtures of colours, for example red and white to make pink, thus making it difficult to classify pigment-wise. The research by Kirby et al (2005) found significant variability in pigment cluster sizes in professional tattoos, compared to amateur tattoos. They also found colour pigment granules to be larger than black pigment granules. This was initially an area of interest, but not one that this research paper will focus on due to the difficulty encountered in obtaining the relevant information. This study uses infrared photography in an attempt to visualise an original tattoo from underneath a cover tattoo, the success of which could be due to a number of different factors. A summary of these factors are as follows: To look at the colours used in both the original tattoo and the cover tattoo and how this affects the successful visualization of the original tattoo using infrared. To look for any correlation linking time since cover tattoo (up to date of photograph) and success of the experiment. This essentially will be looking at the effects of the migration of tattoo ink. To look at any trends involving time elapsed between original tattoo and cover tattoo, and the success of the infrared photographs obtained. As above, this will be examining the effects of ink particle migration. To look at the area on the body of the tattoo and discover if there is a relationship between this and the success of a particular photograph. Essentially, this is investigation skin density as a factor. Taking into account all the research discussed previously and the results obtained by the various studies in the field of infrared photography a few hypotheses have been deduced: The first is that the penetrative nature of infrared suggests it is possible to recover the underlying pigment of the original tattoo from beneath the cover tattoo. The reasons behind this are thought at this stage to be due to the colours present, or perhaps even the concentration of black used in the colour mixtures. The way in which an object appears when photographed using infrared is a direct consequence of their absorbing capabilities. For the purposes of this particular study inspiration was drawn for the research into questioned documents, or more specifically the detection of different inks using infrared. Most inks have different absorbing capabilities, some will only absorb through the visible light spectrum, and some throughout the visible light and into the infrared range. The reason behind this, as mentioned earlier, is due to the chromophores in the dye molecules. In the same way that infrared might be used to detect the underwritings of obliterated text, IR could be used to detect the underlying tattoo pigment, depending on the chromophores, or colours used. The second hypothesis is that any variation in the depth/thickness of the skin will be such a minute difference that it is unlikely to affect the overall success of the project. The factors of time (time between original and cover, and time since cover) are likely to have minimal effect, if any, on the successful visual recovery of the underlying tattoo. It is thought that any trends are more likely to be observed in the extreme time periods, for example, between tattoos that are under a year old and tattoos that are over 30 years old. This is because the most recently done tattoos will not have been affected by migration, whereas very aged tattoos will have undergone decades of migration of the ink particles. Method and materials A sample number of 33 (n33) individuals were used in this research, all of whom volunteered their time and consented for the presentation of their tattoos anonymously in this research paper. All that was required of potential participants was that they had a cover tattoo, there was no other criteria selected for, for example age or gender. The participants were then required to fill out a consent form, as no photographs could be taken without. The participants were asked to fill out a short questionnaire to aid in investigation of the various factors discussed in the introduction, an example of which can be found in the appendix. This project utilizes the near infrared part of the spectrum (the far infrared part of the spectrum is commonly used for thermal imaging). The infrared filters allow infrared light to pass through the camera and blocks most of the visible light spectrum. The Fujifilm IS pro digital SLR camera is sensitive to both ultraviolet and infrared light between 380nm and 1000nm. Optimum settings for the camera were assessed during several pre-experiments. Manual setting, ISO 200 and aperture f/6.3, which provided adequate depth of field for the infrared photographs Filters 87 and 88a were used, which are described as deep infrared filters; allow no visible light to pass through. The Wratten 87 filter has a sharp cut-off at ~800nm, and so transmits freely throughout the infrared region. The 88A has a slightly narrower window with an effective cut-off at ~750nm. The control photographs were taken using a UV/IR barrier filter. All photographs are taken at a 90Â ° angle from the subject (as close to as possible without actually measuring the exact angle) this was to eliminate any false positives due to raised tattoos (which can happen in hot conditions). A colour scale, a grey scale and a sizing scale are held in place around the tattoo. The first photo taken is the control photograph, using the IR-UV cut lens. This allows visible light to be captured and so essentially, is just a normal (visible light) flash photography picture. The second photograph removes the UV-IR cut lens, replacing it with an IR filter. The first used is the Wratten 87, as many photographs as necessary are then taken using this filter. The third set of photographs is taken with the 88a IR filter. The Metz 45CL4 electronic flash gun was the light meter of choice, the setting of which differs between photos depending on the light source available at the location. A number of photographs were taken of each tattoo; one control photograph, and 2 photographs using each filter. The first infrared photograph was to capture the entire tattoo, including the scales. A second photograph was taken if deemed necessary, which was a close up shot, focussing on any areas of interest highlighted in the first infrared photograph in order to capture better detail. Once all of the photograph records were obtained they were categorized into successful and unsuccessful. Of the successful results, due to the varying degrees of success encountered from record to record, it was felt necessary to categorize further still with the introduction of a grading system. The grading system is as follows: 0 None of the original tattoo could be visualised 1 Partial original tattoo visualisation 2 Most of original tattoo can be seen 3 All of the original tattoo can be seen from underneath the cover tattoo. Please note that some of the images presented in this report have only undergone basic alterations post production. The changes made to the infrared images were limited to minor brightness and contrast changes to accentuate any detail in the pictures that may have been lost when the images were resized and in order to retain detail in the printed hard copy. These changes are as follows: Brightness was altered to a maximum of around -10% for the infrared images on Microsoft Office Word 2007. Contrast was altered to a maximum of +30% on Microsoft Office Word 2007. These values are approximate, and dependant on the detail captured in the original, unaltered photographs. The images were not altered in any other way The underlying tattoo can be somewhat visualised under visible light photography conditions however visualisation of the original tattoo is accentuated using the Infrared as it removes the camouflage or interference provided by purple shading of the cover tattoo. This is a grade 2 example. This was graded as 2 because a substantial amount of the original tattoo can be recovered. In this case, the tattoo, under visible light conditions, is not an obvious cover tattoo as no detail of the underlying tattoo can be detected due to the use of shading and the faded nature of the original tattoo. With the shading of the cover tattoo removed using the IR filters the detail in the original tattoo can be visualised. The black shading of the cover tattoo on the eagles head and wings is not visually removed by the infrared, and so part of the cover tattoo is still camouflaged. Note The dark green and blue of the original tattoo appear darker in the infrared than the other colours of the cover tattoo. The purple in the background has completely disappeared in the infrared photograph. This is a particularly interesting record as it demonstrates the absorbing capabilities of black ink. Although some of the original design can been seen in the control photograph it is somewhat polluted by the dark colours of the cover tattoo. The blue and particularly by the purple of the cover design are visually removed in the infrared photograph, highlighting the contrast and allowing for better determination of the actual design. It would be expected that if there were a trend amongst these results that as the time since the cover tattoo increases, so would either the success or failure rate. At the same time, the remaining (factor either success or failure) would decrease as the other increases to show that there is a clear correlation. This does not occur, and so suggests that there is no link between time since the cover tattoo, and the overall success rate. Also there does not appear to be any detectable trend in the observed graph patterns between fig. 9 and fig.10 A summary table of records, including information on colours used, the grade allocated to each record, and a brief description of what can be seen with each record, is available in the appendices (Appendix 4) the findings of which are discussed in the discussion section of this research paper It should be noted that this graph only presents the number of cover tattoos with black ink in the design and does not take into account whether or not the black ink is directly responsible for the obscuring of the original tattoo design. It does, however, present a slight trend, which is to be expected. In cases where the cover tattoo is colourful, the Wratten 87 filter appeared to be the filter of choice as it removed all colour of the cover design to reveal the underlying original tattoo. In cases where the cover tattoo consisted of cut black or grey shading, the Wratten 88a appeared to be the ideal filter to better accentuate the original design from the cover tattoo design traffic. Of the unsuccessful examples: The following results are characterised according to the observed reason why the original tattoo could not be visualised. Please note that in 100% of the unsuccessful records the cover tattoo design contained black ink, however in some cases it is not deemed to be the reason for unsuccessful visualisation (In some cases for example, the black of the cover does not cover the original design) Discussion This research has proved definitively that infrared photography can be employed to detect an original tattoo design from underneath a cover tattoo. Of the several factors investigated in this paper that were thought to affect the success of the recovery of the original tattoo using the IR filters, the only factor with any real merit were the colours used in the original and cover tattoos. The time since the cover tattoo was investigated due to the behaviour of the ink once deposited in the skin. As explained in the tattoo process section, once the ink is deposited, over time some of the particles will disperse throughout the dermis. It was thought that the effect of this, if any, would be to hinder any successful recovery of the underlying tattoo. No obvious correlation was discovered between the time since the cover tattoo and the successful recovery of the original tattoo from underneath the cover tattoo. Time between original tattoo and cover tattoo also yielded no apparent association to the success rate. The graphs and a brief description of the findings can be seen in the results section of this paper (fig. 18 and Fig. 19) When looking at the area on the body as a factor (essentially that is looking at the depth or thickness of the skin) it seemed necessary to take two examples from areas of differing skin thickness and compare the success rates from each. The skin thickness of the wrist will be significantly less than the thickness of the skin on the back, which along with the soles of the hands and feet, is one of the areas on the body of the largest skin density. Of the results for the wrist tattoo, 50% were successful. This was the same as with the results from the examples photographed on the back (Fig.17) suggests that the area on the body of the tattoo had little or no bearing on the results. As predicted it is the colours used in both the original underlying tattoo, and the cover tattoo, that has the most bearing on the successful visualisation of the original tattoo. Visualisation of the underlying tattoo was most striking and effective with the examples with purple, red, light blue and white cover tattoos this is likely to be due to the different chromophores (the functional group of the pigment molecule that gives it its colour) in the different colours used, as they will absorb or reflect the infrared wavelengths at varying levels. Red and purple cover designs yielded the best results because these colours were completely visually removed by the infrared filters, leaving only the underlying original tattoo visible. Referring to Fig.1 and 2 of record 26, the purple of the cover design is completely visually removed under the infrared photographic conditions, allowing the black outline of the original underlying tattoo to be completely visualised. Records 22, 26 and 26b are perhaps the best examples, each receiving grade 3 in the grading system for complete visualisation of the original tattoos. The original designs can be easily distinguished as there is no interference from any fragm